Silence in a Japanese Context
Research shows that Japanese learners have a disposition toward
silent behaviour (Cutrone, 2009). This tendency may be explained by the
fact that in Japanese education, the teacher is traditionally
considered a transmitter of knowledge who should not be questioned.
Furthermore, in Japan, silence serves a communicative purpose as a way
to show respect and agreement. Although considered a virtue in a
Japanese context, Western teachers in Japan often seek to avoid silence
in a communicative EFL classroom because they think it impedes the
process of language learning; communication—perceived by most Western
teachers as the active oral production of a second language (L2)—is
often favoured and encouraged, and moments of silence are generally
considered awkward and are frowned upon.
Although silent behaviour may be caused by numerous factors,
Cutrone (2009) points out that Japanese EFL learners’ reluctance to
speak is largely due to the language anxiety caused by
learners’ social and cultural codes for speaking…Japanese
learners are likely to experience language anxiety in oral EFL classes
because they are simply not prepared to deal with the social components
of western-style teaching practices, where a great emphasis is put on
individualism, challenging the teacher, and original opinions. (p.
58)
This implies that certain classroom virtues are not shared by
Western teachers and Japanese learners. As a result, Western teachers
may need to redefine the concept of communication in a Japanese EFL
classroom, taking into consideration the various sources and functions
of silence as well as acknowledging the fact that both communication and
silence may be perceived and interpreted differently across cultures. A
heightened awareness among teachers of the interplay between both
sociocultural and psychological variables may provide a more complete
understanding of Japanese EFL students’ inclination toward silence.
Willingness to Communicate
An exploration of willingness to communicate (WTC), defined as
“a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a
specific person or persons, using L2,” allows researchers to incorporate
psychological, communicative, and linguistic approaches in examining L2
acquisition (MacIntyre, Dornyei, Clement, & Noels, 1998, p.
545). Fostering a WTC (i.e., engaging in oral production of L2) among
Japanese EFL students is one of the main concerns of Western teachers in
Japan because these teachers are expected to “activate” students’
passive knowledge of English by facilitating an environment in which
students feel comfortable developing their English through trial and
error. Therefore, the argument that “the ultimate goal of the learning
process should be to engender in language students the willingness to
seek out communication opportunities and the willingness to actually
communicate in them” (MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 547) resonates with the
classroom reality Westerns teachers in Japan and many other Asian
countries find themselves in.
The model of WTC presented by MacIntyre et al. (1998) shows how
12 social and psychological variables are interrelated and may affect
students’ choice to engage in L2 communication. Here, the investigation
will be limited to one of these 12 variables: state communicative
self-confidence, which refers to “a momentary feeling of confidence” and
encompasses both “perceived competence” as well as “a lack of anxiety”
(MacIntyre et al., 1998, p. 549). State communicative self-confidence is
one of two situated antecedents that most immediately determine WTC
(MacIntyre et al., 1998); thus, this is a key variable that may help
explain why Japanese EFL students do not engage in communication and
remain silent. As established before, levels of anxiety may render
students silent, and anxiety caused by cultural differences may be
decreased by teachers’ awareness of various perceptions and
interpretations of silence across cultures. Closer examination of
language learning anxiety and its potential sources may help us better
understand and address students’ silence.
Foreign Language Learning Anxiety and Its Sources
Defined as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs,
and behaviours related to classroom language learning arising from the
uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz, Horwitz,
& Cope, 1986, p. 128), foreign language anxiety is linked to
three similar performance anxieties: communication apprehension, fear of
negative evaluation, and test anxiety. Because the focus of the present
article is on silence in communicative oral EFL
classroom settings, communication apprehension, defined as “an
individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or
anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey,
1977, p. 78), will be further discussed, and fear of negative evaluation
will be touched upon briefly.
Young (1991) mentions three psychological phenomena as
important sources of foreign language anxiety, including speech anxiety,
embarrassment, and communication apprehension. Communication
apprehension is subsumed by social anxiety arising from people being
evaluated by others in imagined or real social settings. Social anxiety
directly links to the performance anxiety resulting from fear of
negative evaluation, as discussed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986).
Another psychological phenomenon is “club membership,” referring to
individuals’ affective filters going up when they do not consider
themselves to be members of a certain group (Young, 1991). Last,
existential anxiety is a psychological phenomenon concerned with a
learner’s self-identity: When students learn a new language, they may
feel that they lose their own identity (Young, 1991).
Thus, social anxiety (subsuming both communication apprehension
and fear of negative evaluation), club membership, and existential
anxiety “may be the seeds for students’ language anxiety as expressed in
fear over speaking in front of others” (Young, 1991, p. 428). This fear
is likely to negatively affect students’ WTC, resulting in
silence.
Implications and Suggestions
If they are insufficiently aware of cultural differences and
student expectations, Western teachers may perceive of Japanese EFL
students’ silence as disinterest or shyness. Although at times this may
certainly be the case, and many instances of Japanese EFL students’
silence may be attributed to sociocultural aspects (e.g., silence to
show respect and agreement as well as a reluctance to challenge the
teacher), these sociocultural aspects do not operate separately from
psychological aspects; rather, many of the sources of anxiety previously
described are a mix of sociocultural and psychological influences. An
awareness of these influences is vital if teachers are to address
students’ silence in EFL classrooms.
It is important for teachers to realise that the development of communication apprehension is like a vicious cycle:
Students apprehensive of communication often avoid situations that allow
them to enhance their ability to communicate (Daly, 1991). When, after
much avoidance, students are put into situations where teachers—unaware
of the psychology of silence—push them to produce language, the pressure
for students may become intolerable. The resulting negative evaluation
from themselves, peers, or teachers may reaffirm expectations of poor
performance and result in even greater anxiety. This may lead to an
increased avoidance of participation in communication. Teachers can
encourage students to be less apprehensive by creating a learning
environment supportive of students suffering from communication
apprehension. For instance, teachers may have to extend their tolerance
toward moments of silence as well as allowing students to take their
time expressing ideas.
For the affective filter to go down, a sense of group
membership within the classroom needs to be created (Young,
1991). Collaborative learning activities may help students to open up
and share ideas. By facilitating opportunities for students to engage in
nonevaluated communicative activities, teachers may be able to build a
sense of group membership.
Teachers need to be aware of how existential anxiety impacts students’ self-perception, rendering them silent in
class (Young, 1991). Teachers can share with students their own
experiences of how foreign language learning may have impacted their own
identities. Designing lessons around the topic of identity forming,
teachers may help students realise that it is not uncommon to question
one’s identity when learning a foreign language.
Conclusion
Japanese and perhaps other Asian EFL students’ proclivity to
silence is a complex phenomenon influenced by sociocultural and
psychological variables, which if not acknowledged may lead to serious
misunderstandings between Western teachers and students. Western
teachers need to realize that both communication and silence may be
perceived and interpreted differently by Japanese learners. Japanese EFL
students should know that their Western teachers are aware of the fact
that in Japan, silence plays an active role in communication. Finally,
teachers need to be aware that pushing students to produce language may
further increase levels of foreign language anxiety.
References
Cutrone, P. (2009). Overcoming Japanese EFL learners’ fear of
speaking. Language Studies Working Papers, 1, 55–63.
Daly, J. A. (1991). Understanding communication apprehension:
An introduction for language educators. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J.
Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory and research to
classroom implications (pp. 3–13). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Horwitz, E., Horwitz, M., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign
language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language
Journal, 70(2), 125–132.
MacIntyre, P., Dornyei, Z., Clement, R., & Noels, K.
(1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A
situational model of L2 confidence and affliction. The Modern
Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562.
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: a
summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication
Research, 4(1), 78–96
Young, D. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment:
What does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern
Language Journal, 75(4), 426–439.
Willem de Goei, MA, is an English as a foreign
language instructor and teacher trainer currently based in Accra, Ghana.
His main research interests include foreign language acquisition,
teacher education, intercultural communication, and the integration of
information and communications technology in language instruction. For
the past 10+ years he has taught English at various higher education
institutions in Thailand, Japan, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and
Ghana. |